Dominic Stone
Fish anatomy is the study of the form or morphology of fish. The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk, and tail, and its skeleton is made of either cartilage or bone. The skeleton interacts with a complex muscular organization, resulting in a segmented body model capable of precise control of swimming movements. Fish muscles are composed of multinucleated myofibers (contractile cells) and are categorized into three types: myofibrillar, sarcoplasmic, and stromal. The growth of fish muscles varies with age, exercise, and nutritional status, and muscle development is closely related to the bone to which it is attached. Fish muscles are a source of protein and have beneficial effects on human health, including a potential reduction in the risk of cardiovascular disease.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Muscle development | Closely related to the bone to which it is attached and varies with age, exercise and fish nutritional status |
| Muscle growth | In the majority of fish, it continues to grow throughout life |
| Muscle composition | Myofibrillar (50-60%), sarcoplasmic (30%), and stromal (10-20%) proteins |
| Muscle protein | Accounts for 15-25% of the total protein in fish |
| Muscle fibres | Three types – white, red and pink |
| Myomeres | Blocks of skeletal muscle tissue arranged in sequence, commonly found in aquatic chordates |
| Myomere shape | V-shaped, W-shaped, zig-zag or straight |
| Myomere composition | Made up of myoglobin-rich dark muscle and white muscle |
| Myomere function | Plays a role in force generation for swimming and suction feeding |
| Fish skeleton | Made of either cartilage or bone |
| Fish movement | Swimming movements are produced by the sequential contraction of segmental muscular blocks called myotomes or myomers |
| Fish fins | Paired fins (pectoral and pelvic) and median fins (dorsal, anal and caudal) |
| Fish muscle hydrolysates | Desirable functional ingredients due to their natural availability, low-cost extraction methods, and beneficial effects on human health |
| Fish muscle and health | Fish muscle consumption is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases and major depressive disorder |
| Fish muscle and aquaculture | Interspecies differences in muscle RNA content, fibre diameter, creatine kinase activity, and red muscle area have been observed |
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What You'll Learn
- Fish muscle protein hydrolysates are desirable functional ingredients for human food
- Fish muscle contains 15%–25% of total protein in fish
- Fish muscle is made up of myofibrillar, sarcoplasmic, and stromal proteins
- Fish have two sets of paired fins, which are similar to human arms and legs
- Fish muscle growth varies with age, exercise, and nutritional status
Fish muscle protein hydrolysates are desirable functional ingredients for human food
Fish muscle protein hydrolysates (FPHs) are in high demand as a functional food ingredient due to their nutritional and physiological benefits. FPHs are derived from fish muscle, which accounts for 15-25% of the total protein in fish. This muscle tissue is a rich source of essential amino acids, including lysine, tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, and methionine-cystine. These amino acids play a crucial role in various human biological functions, such as the synthesis of oxygen carriers, vitamins, enzymes, and structural proteins.
The hydrolysates are obtained through enzymatic hydrolysis, a process that breaks down proteins into small peptides composed of 2-20 amino acids. The properties of the resulting FPHs are influenced by several factors, including the type of enzyme used, hydrolysis duration, temperature, pH, and degree of hydrolysis. The final color of the FPHs is significantly impacted by these conditions, which is an important consideration for food fortification to ensure consumer acceptance.
FPHs have been successfully incorporated into various food products, such as mayonnaise and yogurt, to enhance their nutritional profile and functionality. For instance, Unnikrishnan et al. fortified mayonnaise by partially replacing egg yolk with tuna red muscle PH, resulting in a significant increase in protein content and improved emulsion capacity. Similarly, Lima et al. fortified yogurt with muscle FPH from Cynoscion guatucupa, utilizing the enzyme Protamex® in hydrolysis and microencapsulation through spray-drying.
The market for FPHs is expected to experience significant growth, driven by the increasing demand for pharmaceutical products, muscle-building supplements, and infant formulas. The first products based on fish hydrolysates are already entering the market, including dietary supplements, antihypertensive capsules, and food fortification options. With their high nutritional value, bioactive properties, and potential health benefits, FPHs are indeed desirable functional ingredients for human food, offering a range of applications in the food and health industries.
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Fish muscle contains 15%–25% of total protein in fish
Fish muscle contains 15%–25% of the total protein in fish. This makes it a desirable protein source, with high demand for its hydrolysate nutritionally as a functional food. The hydrolysate contains physiologically active amino acids and various essential nutrients, including abundant essential amino acids such as lysine, tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, and methionine–cystine. The essential amino acids in fish muscle total 19% of the total essential amino acids in fish, with 33.7% of total amino acids being glycine, proline, and leucine; 18.7% being alanine, tyrosine, and valine; and 4.9% being methionine, glutamine, and cysteine.
Fish muscle can be divided into myofibrillar (50%–60%), sarcoplasmic (30%), and stromal (10%–20%) proteins. The heterogeneous fibrous populations of cells in fish muscle differ in terms of molecular, structural, contractile, and metabolic functions, influencing the growth rate and properties of the muscle. For example, the firmness of the muscle varies with cellularity, including muscle fibre density and diameter. Fish muscle is softer than that of terrestrial animals as constant energy is not needed to support their skeletons in water.
Fish muscle has been shown to have health-promoting effects for humans, reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and major depressive disorder. The high demand for better pharmaceutical and nutritional products has increased interest in the various bioactivities of fish muscle hydrolysate. Fish muscle hydrolysate can be used in nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals to improve human health.
The consumption of fish has increased by ~8% over the last 30 years, with an average annual rise in global food fish consumption of 3.1% between 1961 and 2018. This has outpaced the population growth of 1.6% and the consumption escalation of all terrestrial animal products combined.
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Fish muscle is made up of myofibrillar, sarcoplasmic, and stromal proteins
Fish muscles are part of a complex muscular organisation that works in synchronisation with the fish skeleton to enable precise control of swimming movements. The skeleton is formed by bones and cartilage, and the two are connected by tendons and ligaments. The trunk and tail muscles play the most important part in locomotion and are stronger than the appendicular muscles, which control the fins.
Research on the effects of sex steroids on protein degradation in fish has yielded unclear results. However, it has been found that elevations in circulating E2 during maturation may mobilise muscle amino acids through protein degradation. Injections of E2 have also been found to increase the expression of cathepsin and autophagy-related genes, leading to catabolic effects on protein turnover.
In addition to myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic proteins, fish muscle also contains stromal proteins. These proteins are involved in the structural support and connectivity of the muscle fibres. They include collagen, laminin, and fibronectin, which provide structural integrity and facilitate muscle contraction.
Overall, the combination of myofibrillar, sarcoplasmic, and stromal proteins in fish muscle contributes to the precise control of swimming movements and the overall locomotion of fish.
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Fish have two sets of paired fins, which are similar to human arms and legs
The pelvic fins sit horizontally on the ventral side of the fish, past the pectoral fins. Pelvic fins are similar to legs. Just like human legs, they are associated with the pelvis of the fish. Paired fins are most commonly used for maneuvering, like the oars on a rowboat. However, both the pectoral and pelvic fins can also be highly specialized like those of the flying fish.
The shape of myomeres, or muscle tissue blocks, varies by species. Myomeres are commonly zig-zag, "V" (lancelets), "W" (fishes), or straight (tetrapods)–shaped muscle fibres. Generally, cyclostome myomeres are arranged in vertical strips while those of jawed fishes are folded in a complex manner due to swimming capability evolution. Specifically, myomeres of elasmobranchs and eels are W-shaped. In contrast, myomeres of tetrapods run vertically and do not display complex folding. The horizontal septum divides these two regions in vertebrates from cyclostomes to gnathostomes.
In fish, muscle development is closely related to the bone to which it is attached and also varies with age, exercise, and fish nutritional status. In the majority of fish, muscle continues to grow throughout life, and therefore musculature enlargement is a combination of newly formed cells and increased size of pre-existing fibres. The skeleton maintains the body shape and has sections that act as levers that are moved by the attached muscles. It also provides protection to certain organs and systems as well as acting as a calcium reservoir.
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Fish muscle growth varies with age, exercise, and nutritional status
Exercise plays a significant role in fish muscle growth. Similar to mammals, exercise in fish stimulates a growth hormone (GH) response, which leads to skeletal growth. This response is further enhanced by the high level of muscle plasticity in fish, resulting in hyperplasia and improved flesh quality. Moderate and sustained exercise has been shown to positively impact the growth and feed conversion of salmonids and non-salmonid species.
Nutrition is another critical factor influencing fish muscle growth. Nutritional status, particularly the levels of circulating IGF-I, regulates muscle growth pathways. Additionally, vitamin D, a nutrient found in fish, is essential for normal muscle development and growth. Its deficiency negatively affects muscle function. Fish are also a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, which have been linked to muscle health and the prevention of sarcopenia, an age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass.
While the specific mechanisms are not fully understood, vitamin D is known to enhance muscle protein synthesis and boost strength and balance. Furthermore, omega-3 fatty acids possess anti-inflammatory properties, which may help manage sarcopenia. The nutritional content of fish, including their vitamin E, further contributes to maintaining muscle health.
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Frequently asked questions
Fish muscles are made of contractile cells, which are multinucleated myofibers.
Fish muscles help the fish swim and move. They also aid in tissue repair and play a role in the inflammatory process.
Fish muscles are composed of myomeres, which are blocks of skeletal muscle tissue arranged in sequence and commonly found in aquatic chordates. The shape of myomeres varies by species and can be zig-zag, "V", "W", or straight.
Fish muscle contains 15%–25% of total protein in fish, including myofibrillar (50%–60%), sarcoplasmic (30%), and stromal (10%–20%) proteins.
Yes, the size and growth of fish muscles vary across different species. For example, rainbow trout have a higher muscle RNA content and fibre diameter compared to maraena whitefish.
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