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Artificial muscles, also known as muscle-like actuators, are materials or devices that mimic natural muscle function. They can change their stiffness, contract, expand, or rotate in response to external stimuli such as voltage, current, pressure, or temperature. The development of artificial muscles has been an active area of research since the 1930s, with the earliest research literature published in 1961. The field has seen significant growth in academic research and technological applications since the turn of the 21st century, with a wide range of potential applications in robotics, prosthetics, flexible electronics, smart textiles, and medical rehabilitation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of invention | The earliest research literature on artificial muscles was published in 1961, describing a pneumatic artificial muscle invented by McKibben. |
| Types | Pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs), McKibben Muscle, fiber-based artificial muscles, etc. |
| Functionality | Artificial muscles can mimic natural muscle functions like contraction, expansion, and rotation. |
| Applications | Robotics, prosthetic devices, exoskeletons, power generators, motors, pumps, valves, sensors, etc. |
| Advantages | High power-to-weight ratio, lightweight, fast response times, high flexibility, and versatility. |
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What You'll Learn
The history of artificial muscle research
Since then, numerous researchers and institutions have contributed to the development and refinement of artificial muscle technology. The field has witnessed an increase in academic research and technological applications, with a steady upward trend in the number of patents and papers published since 2000. The year 2016 marked a significant milestone, with the number of outcomes in these areas approaching or exceeding 100.
One notable contribution to artificial muscle research came from SRI International, which developed Electroactive Polymer Artificial Muscle (EPAM) technology. EPAM mimics the capabilities of natural muscles, converting electrical energy into programmable mechanical motion. This technology has found applications in various fields, including audio speakers, power generators, motors, pumps, valves, sensors, and medical devices. SRI International's work led to the establishment of Artificial Muscle, Inc. (AMI) in 2003, which commercialized EPAM technology.
Another key area of exploration in artificial muscle research is the use of pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs). PAMs operate by filling a pneumatic bladder with pressurised air, resulting in volume expansion and contraction. The McKibben Muscle, first developed in the 1950s, is a commonly used type of PAM. Researchers have also worked on improving the functionality of PAMs, such as achieving bidirectional motion through antagonistic setups.
Recent advancements in artificial muscle technology include the development of fiber-based systems by researchers at MIT. These lightweight fibers respond quickly and can stretch more than 1,000% of their size, making them suitable for applications in robotics and prosthetic devices. The potential applications of artificial muscles continue to expand, with ongoing research focusing on enhancing their performance, versatility, and integration into various systems.
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Pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs)
Artificial muscles are materials or devices that mimic natural muscle movement and can change their stiffness, contract, expand, or rotate within one component due to an external stimulus. Pneumatic Artificial Muscles (PAMs) are contractile or extensional devices operated by pressurised air filling a pneumatic bladder. PAMs were first developed in the 1950s by physician Joseph L. McKibben for use in artificial limbs. They are usually grouped in pairs: one agonist and one antagonist.
PAMs consist of an inflatable inner bladder inside a braided mesh, clamped at the ends, that contracts or extends when supplied with high/low pressure, respectively. The McKibben PAM typically consists of an inflatable inner tube, an external braided mesh, and a pneumatic fitting. When the inner tube is pressurised, the external braided mesh contracts axially and dilates radially. The force and extension in PAMs mirror what is seen in the length-tension relationship in biological muscle systems. The compressibility of the gas is an advantage since it adds compliance.
PAMs have been used in many applications, with robotic structures and exoskeletons being the most popular. The power-assist glove from Okayama University, Japan, for example, comprises six pneumatic rubber muscles secured to an ordinary glove. The muscles achieve approximately 20 N, which is sufficient to interact with objects in daily life. Some studies show the possibility of using PAMs to design devices for walking assistance or low back support.
PAMs are lightweight and produce a strong force, which provides them with a high power-to-weight ratio. They are also inherently compliant: when a force is exerted on a PAM, it "gives in" without increasing the force in the actuation. This is an important feature when the PAM is used as an actuator in a robot that interacts with a human or when delicate operations have to be carried out.
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Electroactive polymers (EAPs)
The field of EAPs was pioneered in 1880 by Wilhelm Röntgen, who observed that a rubber band with a weight on one end changed length when electrically charged and discharged. In 1899, M. P. Sacerdote confirmed Röntgen’s experiment and formulated a theory of the strain response to electric field activation. In 1925, the first piezoelectric polymer, called electret, was discovered. It was formed by combining carnauba wax, rosin, and beeswax, and then cooling the solution while it was subject to an applied DC electrical bias. The mixture solidified into a polymeric material that exhibited a piezoelectric effect.
In 1969, Kawai demonstrated that polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) exhibits a large piezoelectric effect, sparking research interest in developing other polymers with similar effects. In 1977, the first electrically conducting polymers were discovered by Hideki Shirakawa and his team. They demonstrated that polyacetylene was electrically conductive, and that doping it with iodine vapour enhanced its conductivity by eight times, close to that of a metal.
In the early 1990s, ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs) were developed, exhibiting superior electroactive properties compared to previous EAPs. This led to the first commercially developed device containing EAPs as an artificial muscle in 2002, produced by Eamex in Japan. The device was a fish that could swim on its own by moving its tail using an EAP muscle.
EAPs have unique properties that make them attractive for various applications. They are extremely lightweight, inexpensive, fracture-tolerant, and compliant. They can be used for static shape correction and jitter suppression in optical membranes. EAPs also show potential in biomimetic-robot research, stress sensors, and acoustics fields.
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Applications of artificial muscles
Artificial muscles are materials or devices that mimic natural muscle movements and can change their stiffness, reversibly contract, expand, or rotate within one component due to an external stimulus. They have a wide variety of applications, including:
Robotics
Artificial muscles can be used to create robots that can walk on water, crawl, or explore unknown spaces. They can also be used to create insect-sized robots, as well as soft tension robots and endo-exoskeleton robots. The unique properties of artificial muscles, such as their flexibility, versatility, and power-to-weight ratio, make them particularly useful for robotics applications.
Prosthetics and Orthotics
Artificial muscles can be used to create prosthetic or orthotic devices that can be controlled with a high degree of precision. This includes applications in prosthetic limbs and other biomedical devices. The lightweight and fast-acting nature of artificial muscles makes them ideal for use in prosthetics, as they can mimic the movements of natural muscles.
Industry
Artificial muscles can be used in a variety of industrial applications, such as power generators, motors, pumps, valves, and sensors. They can also be used to develop haptic feedback for gaming, creating a more immersive experience for users. The high power-to-weight ratio and flexibility of artificial muscles make them a disruptive emerging technology with the potential to replace traditional motors in many applications.
Medicine
Artificial muscles can be used in medical devices, particularly those that require the mechanical capability of a muscle, such as rehabilitation assistance training. Their non-toxic nature and ability to hold a position with almost no current make them ideal for use in medical devices that interact with the human body.
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The future of artificial muscle technology
Artificial muscles, also known as muscle-like actuators, are materials or devices that mimic natural muscle movements and can change their stiffness, contract, expand, or rotate with an external stimulus such as voltage, current, pressure, or temperature.
Medical Applications: Artificial muscles have the potential to revolutionize medicine, particularly in the field of prosthetics and orthotics. Scientists have already developed artificial muscle prosthetics that can expand and contract like biological muscles. Additionally, artificial muscles can be used in organ transplants, such as mimicking heart valves for use in heart surgery. The non-toxic and flexible nature of artificial muscles makes them ideal for medical devices and surgical procedures.
Robotics: Artificial muscle technology has seen significant advancements in robotics. Researchers have developed insect-sized robots, water-walking robots, and soft tension robots that utilize artificial muscles. These muscles can be controlled with high precision, enabling complex movements and deformations. The development of soft robotics, in particular, has been enhanced by artificial muscle technology, allowing for more human-like movements and interactions with the environment.
Industrial Automation: Artificial muscles can be used to replace traditional electric motor actuators, offering reduced weight, noise, and cost while providing precise control. This makes them ideal for various industrial applications, including service robots, automotive parts, and aerospace components.
Smart Wearables: Artificial muscles have the potential to be integrated into smart wearables, such as haptic feedback systems for gaming and other consumer applications. With the development of more flexible materials, artificial muscles can provide a more natural and immersive experience for users.
Energy Efficiency: Artificial muscles based on EPAM technology, such as dielectric elastomers, offer enhanced energy efficiency. They can convert electrical energy into programmable mechanical motion, resulting in lighter, more robust, and cheaper products. This energy efficiency makes artificial muscles ideal for power generation and energy storage applications.
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Frequently asked questions
The earliest research literature on artificial muscles is a paper published in The Lancet in 1961, which describes a pneumatic artificial muscle invented by McKibben.
Artificial muscles are materials or devices that mimic natural muscle function and can change their stiffness, reversibly contract, expand, or rotate within one component due to an external stimulus.
Artificial muscles have broad application prospects in many fields, including robotics, flexible electronics, smart textiles, and medical rehabilitation.
Examples of artificial muscle technologies include pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs), electroactive polymers (EAPs), and fiber-based systems.
