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Mormonism is a religious movement that originated in the United States in the 19th century. It is based on the teachings of Joseph Smith, who is considered a modern-day prophet by his followers. The movement has a strong focus on masculinity and physical strength, which is reflected in its theology and visual imagery. The term Muscle Mormon refers to the depiction of muscular and shirtless male missionaries in a calendar, which caused some controversy due to its eroticism and potential homoeroticism. This depiction of muscular Mormons is also seen in religious texts and artwork, such as the Book of Mormon, where Jesus and other figures are described as having well-defined muscles and masculine features. The glorification of the male body in Mormonism has been interpreted as a form of sexual objectification by some, while others view it as a representation of virility and strength.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Type of movement | Religious |
| Religion | Christianity |
| Variants | Muscular Mormonism, Muscular Christianity |
| Origin | England |
| Origin year | Mid-19th century |
| Key figures | Thomas Hughes, Charles Kingsley, Ralph Connor, Theodore Roosevelt, Paul the Apostle, Rousseau, T.C. Sandars, Rudger Clawson |
| Key texts | Tom Brown's School Days, Tom Brown at Oxford, Emile |
| Key tenets | Belief in patriotic duty, discipline, self-sacrifice, masculinity, athleticism, spiritual value of sports |
| Influence | Catholicism, Protestantism |
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What You'll Learn
- Muscular Mormonism is a variant of Muscular Christianity
- Muscular Mormonism emerged in the 20th century as part of the church's push for social respectability
- Muscular Christianity is a religious movement that originated in England in the mid-19th century
- Muscular Christianity is influential within Catholicism and Protestantism
- Muscular Christianity is characterised by beliefs in patriotic duty, discipline, self-sacrifice, masculinity, and athleticism
Muscular Mormonism is a variant of Muscular Christianity
Muscular Christianity is a religious movement that emerged in mid-19th century England, characterized by a belief in patriotic duty, discipline, self-sacrifice, masculinity, and the moral and physical beauty of athleticism. The movement was never formally organized but was instead a cultural trend supported by various figures and churches. It is associated with English writers Thomas Hughes, Charles Kingsley, and Ralph Connor, and American President Theodore Roosevelt was a prominent adherent.
Both movements emphasize the importance of physical strength and health, as well as the spiritual value of sports, particularly team sports. Muscular Christianity, as the name suggests, emphasizes masculinity and manliness, and this is reflected in Muscular Mormonism. For example, images of Jesus in the Book of Mormon often depict him as muscular and masculine, with huge biceps and a chiseled chin. Similarly, other religious figures in Mormon visual imagery are portrayed as muscular and shirtless, signaling virility and strength.
While Muscular Christianity was a broader cultural movement, Muscular Mormonism was a more specific response to the challenges faced by the Mormon church at the turn of the century. Both movements sought to promote a particular vision of masculinity and the active pursuit of Christian ideals through physical activity and athletic metaphors.
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Muscular Mormonism emerged in the 20th century as part of the church's push for social respectability
Muscular Mormonism, or the LDS variant of muscular Christianity, emerged in the early 20th century as part of the church's efforts to gain social respectability following the official renunciation of polygamy in 1890. The movement was influenced by the broader cultural trend of muscular Christianity, which originated in England in the mid-19th century and emphasised the spiritual value of sports and physical strength.
At its core, Muscular Mormonism aimed to revitalise Mormon masculinity by embracing athletics and physical culture. This shift towards athleticism was a response to the perceived emasculation of Mormon males following the end of plural marriage in the 1890s. By promoting physical strength and health, Muscular Mormonism sought to rebuild a sense of masculine identity within the church.
The visual representation of muscular religious figures, including a muscular Jesus with "huge biceps, a chiseled chin, and flowing hair", further reinforced the ideals of Muscular Mormonism. This aesthetic extended beyond religious texts, with images of shirtless Mormon missionaries and athletes becoming a source of controversy due to their potential eroticism and homoeroticism.
Muscular Mormonism also influenced Mormon literature, with authors such as John Henry Evans incorporating juvenile sports fiction to instruct young Mormons on the intersection of physical strength and spiritual development. This literary trend reflected the broader cultural shift within the church towards embracing fiction as a tool for religious instruction and the promotion of self-reliance.
Overall, the emergence of Muscular Mormonism in the 20th century was a response to the social and cultural changes within the church, particularly the move away from polygamy. By embracing physical strength and athleticism, the movement sought to redefine and revitalise Mormon masculinity, contributing to the church's pursuit of social respectability.
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Muscular Christianity is a religious movement that originated in England in the mid-19th century
Kingsley, a clergyman and novelist, was an early champion of the movement. His historical novels from the 1850s glorified the colonialist enterprise of the British Empire and Anglo-Saxon resistance to the Norman Conquest of England, imbued with a strong sense of British nationalism. The term "Muscular Christianity" was first used in a review of Kingsley's novel "Two Years Ago" in 1857, and while he initially disliked the term, he later embraced it. Kingsley's works promoted the spiritual value of sports, especially team sports, with him stating that "games conduce, not merely to physical, but to moral health".
The movement also spread to other countries in the 19th century, including the United States, where it was promoted by organisations such as the Fellowship of Christian Athletes and the YMCA. In the US, one of its most prominent adherents was President Theodore Roosevelt, who was raised in a household that practised Muscular Christianity. Roosevelt, along with Kingsley and Hughes, emphasised physical strength and health, as well as the active pursuit of Christian ideals in personal life and politics. Amos Alonzo Stagg, a Yale-educated football coach, was also a vocal proponent and influencer of intercollegiate sports in the US.
The modern Olympic Games also emerged from the ideology of Muscular Christianity. The founder of the modern Olympics, Pierre de Coubertin, was inspired by Hughes' "Tom Brown's School Days" and sought to develop an educational model that combined athletics with strengthening bodies. The movement began to decline following World War I, as the influence of Protestantism waned and higher education moved away from religion. However, the connection between sports and Christianity remained strong, and the revival of religion after World War II, along with the rise of national sports, created new intersections between Christianity and athletics.
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Muscular Christianity is influential within Catholicism and Protestantism
Muscular Christianity is a religious movement that originated in England during the mid-19th century. It is characterized by a belief in patriotic duty, discipline, self-sacrifice, masculinity, and the moral and physical beauty of athleticism. The movement gained popularity during the Victorian era as a method of instilling character in students at English public schools. It is commonly associated with English writers Thomas Hughes, Charles Kingsley, and Ralph Connor.
The term "Muscular Christianity" was popularized in 1857 by barrister T. C. Sandars in a review of Kingsley's novel "Two Years Ago." Hughes, Kingsley, and Roosevelt promoted physical strength and health alongside the active pursuit of Christian ideals in personal life and politics. Hughes, for instance, stated that ""a man's body is given to him by God, and it is to be trained and brought into subjection, and then used for the protection of the weak, the advancement of all righteous causes, and the subduing of the earth which God has given to the children of men."
Muscular Christianity has influenced both Catholicism and Protestantism. In Catholicism, it is promoted by the athletic programs of schools such as the University of Notre Dame, where male athletes on varsity teams follow Thomas Hughes's six criteria for Muscular Christianity, believing that their bodies are a gift from God and training them in His name.
In Protestantism, Muscular Christianity was particularly influential from 1880 to 1920. During this period, the YMCA invented basketball and volleyball, and the Men and Religion Forward Movement aimed to fill Protestant churches with men. These efforts continued throughout World War I, with churches taking the lead in organized camping and public playground movements. However, in the 1930s, with the rise of Neo-Orthodoxy in mainline Protestant churches, the influence of Muscular Christianity declined as theologians like Reinhold Niebuhr emphasized that divinity resided not in men's muscles but with God. Despite this, Muscular Christianity continued to find support in right-leaning Protestant groups such as Promise Keepers, Athletes in Action, and the Fellowship of Christian Athletes.
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Muscular Christianity is characterised by beliefs in patriotic duty, discipline, self-sacrifice, masculinity, and athleticism
Muscular Christianity is a religious movement that emerged in mid-19th-century England, emphasising patriotic duty, discipline, self-sacrifice, masculinity, and athleticism's moral and physical beauty. It was popularised by English writers Thomas Hughes, Charles Kingsley, and Ralph Connor, with Hughes's novel "Tom Brown's School Days" being particularly influential. The movement advocated for physical strength and health alongside the pursuit of Christian ideals in personal life and politics.
The term "Muscular Christianity" was coined in 1857 by barrister T. C. Sandars in a review of Kingsley's novel "Two Years Ago." While Kingsley initially disliked the term, he later embraced it. Muscular Christianity promoted the spiritual value of sports, especially team sports, with Kingsley noting that "games conduce, not merely to physical, but to moral health." The movement aimed to build character in pupils at English public schools, emphasising physical manliness, chivalry, and a masculine character.
In the United States, Muscular Christianity first appeared in private schools, the YMCA, and the preaching of evangelists like Dwight L. Moody. Scholar Iren Annus linked its growth to societal changes, including the emancipation of women and the shift of white Anglo-Saxon Protestant men to white-collar jobs, which contributed to anxieties over masculinity. The movement has continued to influence organisations that integrate physical and Christian spiritual development, and it has seen a resurgence in the 21st century due to a perceived "crisis of masculinity."
Muscular Christianity has also influenced global sports culture and other ideologies. Elwood Brown, the physical director of the YMCA's Manila chapter, promoted Muscular Christianity in the Philippines and co-founded the Far Eastern Championship Games. Japanese scholar Ikuo Abe attributed Japan's modern sports culture to the influence of Christian missionaries and Western teachers during the 19th and 20th centuries, blending Muscular Christianity with Bushido ethics. Similarly, Swami Vivekananda's ideology of "muscular Hinduism" and Hindu nationalism drew from Muscular Christianity's emphasis on physical prowess and masculinity.
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Frequently asked questions
Muscular Mormonism is the LDS variant of muscular Christianity, which emerged in the early 20th century as part of the church's push for social respectability following the renunciation of polygamy in 1890.
Muscular Christianity is a religious movement that originated in England in the mid-19th century. It is characterized by a belief in patriotic duty, discipline, self-sacrifice, masculinity, and the moral and physical beauty of athleticism.
The main tenets of Muscular Christianity, as established by Thomas Hughes, are physical manliness, chivalry, and masculinity of character. Hughes stated that "a man's body is given to him (by God) to be trained and brought into subjection, and then used for the protection of the weak, the advancement of all righteous causes, and the subduing of the earth which God has given to the children of men."
Muscular Christianity is reflected in Mormon visual imagery through the depiction of muscular religious figures, including Jesus and other male figures in the Book of Mormon. These images portray religious men as "manly men" with rippling forearms and bulging biceps, exuding masculinity and strength.
The emergence of Muscular Mormonism led to a focus on athletics as a way to re-energize Mormon masculinity following the end of plural marriage in the 1890s. This shift in emphasis toward physical strength and health influenced the cultural and social norms within Mormon society.
