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New Zealand green-lipped mussels, also known as greenshell mussels, are bivalve molluscs in the family Mytilidae (the true mussels). They are economically important to New Zealand as a cultivated species and are often farmed for aquaculture. The mussels are native to New Zealand and can be found all around the mainland, typically in sheltered waters close to the shore. The industry has expanded massively since the 1970s, with production growing by 708% from 1988 to 2000.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Scientific Name | Perna canaliculus |
| Common Name | New Zealand green-lipped mussel, greenshell mussel, kuku, kutai |
| Family | Mytilidae (true mussels) |
| Shell Colour | Dark brown/green with green lips |
| Adductor Muscles | One |
| Length | Up to 240mm (9 inches) |
| Habitat | Below the intertidal zone around New Zealand's mainland |
| Food | Phytoplankton |
| Farming Productivity in 2000 | 9.85 tonnes per hectare per year |
| Farming Revenue in 2000 | $NZ59,649 per hectare per year |
| Farming Area in 2000 | 3,000 hectares (7,400 acres) |
| Proposed Farming Area | Additional 30,000 hectares (74,000 acres) |
| Average Annual Growth (1988-2000) | 18% |
| Water Quality Standards | U.S. Food and Drug Administration, European Union, NZ Food Safety Authority |
| Environmental Legislation | Resource Management Act 1991, Fisheries Act 1996 |
| Eco-Friendly Ranking | Top 2 by Blue Ocean Institute |
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What You'll Learn
Perna canaliculus, the scientific name for NZ mussels
Perna canaliculus, also known as the New Zealand green-lipped mussel, is a bivalve mollusc species in the family Mytilidae (the true mussels). It is native to the waters of New Zealand and can be found all around the mainland, usually below the intertidal zone. The species is distinguished by its dark brown/green shells with green lips around the edges, and it is one of the largest mussel species, reaching up to 240 millimetres (9 inches) in length.
Perna canaliculus has been of economic importance to New Zealand as a cultivated species, with the industry producing over 140,000 metric tons annually and valued at over NZ$250 million in 2009. The aquaculture of these mussels relies on the production of mussel seed, or spat, by wild mussel populations. The majority of this wild spat is collected from Ninety Mile Beach in northern New Zealand, with the remaining 20% caught using fibrous ropes suspended near mussel farms. The industry faces challenges due to its heavy dependence on wild spat, which can result in uncertainty of supply and major production problems during years with low spat numbers.
The cultivation of New Zealand greenshell mussels began in the 1970s and has since expanded significantly, with a 708% production growth from 1988 to 2000. The methods have evolved from the traditional European floating raft technique to the adapted Japanese longline shellfish aquaculture system, enabling large-scale production. The farming process typically takes between 12 to 24 months, with mussels harvested at around 100 millimetres in size.
Perna canaliculus is also known for its potential health benefits due to its anti-inflammatory properties. It has been studied for its efficacy in treating osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and joint issues. Clinical trials have shown promising results in both humans and animals, although more research is needed to confirm these benefits.
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How spatfall impacts mussel farming
Mussel farming is an industry that relies heavily on the production of mussel seed, or spat, by wild mussel populations. Spatfall refers to the period when mussel larvae are developed enough to settle and attach themselves to solid surfaces. Successful collection of these spats is essential for mussel farming. While technology to artificially produce spats in controlled conditions is available, it is not yet economically viable, and wild spat collection is markedly cheaper.
The New Zealand greenshell mussel industry is heavily dependent on wild spat, with around 270 tonnes of wild spat, attached to beach-cast seaweed, collected from Ninety Mile Beach in northern New Zealand each year to supply the industry. This single beach provides around 80% of the seed mussels required. The remaining 20% is caught using fibrous ropes suspended in the sea near mussel farms.
However, this heavy reliance on wild spat means that the industry is vulnerable to uncertainty of supply, which can result in major production problems. For example, El Niño periods can cause delays in mussel farm production due to insufficient seed landing on Ninety Mile Beach. In addition, the oversupply of artificial substrates can promote recruitment failures in natural beds, threatening the sustainability of the mussel farming industry.
Spat collectors, such as coconut husk, are inserted into the lay of ropes to collect mussel spats. These spats are then grown for 4-5 months before being harvested at a length of 37-60mm. The timing of spatfall can be predicted with a fair degree of accuracy after a few years of observation, allowing farmers to lay their stakes at the optimal time to catch the heaviest spatfalls.
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The growth of mussel farming in NZ
Mussel farming is important to New Zealand's economy, with over 600 mussel farms covering thousands of hectares of marine space. The sale of green-lipped mussels for human consumption is worth over $200 million, with most of that revenue coming from exports. In addition, a large number of mussels are processed to obtain biopharmaceuticals and health supplements (mussel extracts used to treat inflammation, joint pain, and other complaints), estimated to be worth over $40 million.
Mussel farming in New Zealand developed to meet consumer demand after the supply of wild mussels collapsed in the 1960s. Before that time, wild green-lipped mussels were harvested by dredges (boats that scraped beds of mussels from the seafloor) and by hand from intertidal rocks along the shore.
Most green-lipped mussels in New Zealand are farmed in the same way. Juvenile mussels, or spat, are collected from Ninety Mile Beach and elsewhere in New Zealand, where they wash up in their millions attached to clumps of seaweed. After arriving at a mussel farm, spat are transferred to nursery ropes and grown in seawater for about six months. They are then removed and reseeded onto longlines (stretches of rope several kilometres long) suspended between buoys, where they are grown for another 9–12 months before being harvested.
Clean unpolluted water is the most important consideration when farming mussels, followed by the need for relatively calm sea conditions and water depths of 5–30 metres. Farms must also be sited out of the effect of ocean swells and so as not to interfere with the passage of vessels. A typical longline is 110 metres long and consists of two strong parallel ropes separated by plastic floats. The longlines are anchored at both ends on the seafloor, with the cultivation rope hanging in loops from the longline. As the mussels grow and increase in weight, more floats are added between the longline 'backbone'.
Research has shown that mussel and seaweed farming in New Zealand can increase wild fish populations and bolster diversity, providing habitat for marine species and food for people. However, the New Zealand pea crab, which inhabits green-lipped mussels, can decrease the growth of farmed mussels and cost the industry over $2 million per year.
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The process of mussel harvesting
New Zealand mussels, also known as Greenshell mussels, have been harvested for human consumption since the beginning of human habitation in New Zealand. They are considered New Zealand's most iconic seafood and are rated as one of the most sustainable seafood products globally.
The process of harvesting mussels in New Zealand involves several steps to ensure the mussels are of good quality and safe for human consumption. Firstly, mussel spat, or baby mussels, are collected from Ninety Mile Beach in northern New Zealand. This beach provides around 80% of the seed mussels required for aquaculture. The remaining 20% is collected using Christmas tree ropes, which are fibrous ropes suspended in the sea near mussel farms. The ropes have a central thread with hairy fibres that resemble seaweed, attracting the mussel seed to settle and attach to it. Once the mussels have grown to the appropriate size, they are harvested using specially designed vessels that pull the dropper ropes on board to strip the mussels from the rope.
After harvesting, the mussels are placed into 1-tonne synthetic bags, which allow them to breathe during transport. The transport chain is carefully organised to match the processing capacity with the harvesting rate, ensuring that the mussels are processed within a few hours of harvesting. Upon arrival at the processing factory, the mussels undergo a rigorous inspection process. Any broken or low-quality mussels are removed, and only good-quality mussels proceed to the next step. The mussels are then lightly cooked, usually by steaming, to open them up so that one of the shells can be removed. They are then sent through a "de-bearder" to remove the threads they extrude to cling onto surfaces.
Following this, the mussels are snap-frozen to preserve their freshness and quality. The rapid freezing process helps retain the natural taste and texture of the mussels. Finally, the mussels are packaged and placed into cold storage, ready for distribution. The entire production process, from the beginning of the cycle to final packaging, usually takes little more than thirty minutes.
The New Zealand government has implemented strict regulations and quality control measures to ensure the safety and sustainability of the mussel harvesting industry. Regular inspections are conducted by government inspectors, and the water quality is constantly monitored to meet the increasing global demand for safe and healthy seafood products.
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The environmental impact of mussel aquaculture
Mussel aquaculture, or farming, has both positive and negative environmental impacts. On the positive side, mussels have a low carbon footprint compared to other meats, such as beef and poultry. Mussels have been described as a "sustainable source of protein" that can "positively impact climate change". Indeed, the New Zealand greenshell mussel industry, in particular, operates within some of the strictest quality standards in the world. Both the mussels and seawater around the farms are tested for biotoxins, bacteria, and heavy metals, and the water quality is constantly monitored. This has led to New Zealand greenshell mussels being ranked as one of the top two 'eco-friendly seafoods' in the world.
However, mussel farming can also have negative environmental consequences. For example, large mussel farms with high biomasses may have a significant influence on benthic communities in coastal marine ecosystems. Mussel farming can lead to an increase in ammonium, nitrites, nitrates, and phosphates and a decrease in organic matter in water. This can cause degradation of benthic communities and have serious eutrophication consequences. Overall oxygen consumption increases with the increase in organic load, which can lead to depletion of oxygen in the sediments and near-bottom water layer.
Moreover, mussel farming requires a large vessel or large floating rafts, as well as a fair amount of equipment. This can result in an increased use of resources and contribute to environmental degradation. In addition, mussels are susceptible to pests and predators, which can make farming them challenging and impact the environment.
Overall, while mussel aquaculture has some negative environmental impacts, it is generally considered to be a sustainable and eco-friendly practice, especially when compared to other forms of aquaculture and meat production.
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Frequently asked questions
New Zealand mussels, also known as greenshell or green-lipped mussels, are a species of mussels indigenous to New Zealand. They are easily recognisable by the green tinge on the outside of their shell and are considered New Zealand's most iconic seafood.
New Zealand mussels are known for their sweet taste and plump, meaty texture. They are also a good source of protein, iron and omega-3 fatty acids.
New Zealand mussels are grown in four main areas: Marlborough, Golden Bay/Tasman Bay, Coromandel and Stewart Island. They are grown on longline technology using continuous crop ropes, ranging from 3,000 to 4,200 metres in length.
New Zealand mussels can be baked, barbecued, fried, steamed or smoked. They are often sold frozen in the half shell, so they are easier to cook. Simply defrost them, add your desired toppings, and cook using your preferred method.
