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The tail is an elongated section at the rear end of bilaterian animals, typically featuring distinct, flexible appendages that extend backward from the torso's midline. Tails are primarily considered a feature of vertebrates, with some invertebrates like scorpions and snails also possessing tail-like structures. The number of caudal vertebrae in tails varies significantly across species, with some tails containing up to 49 caudal vertebrae. These tails are composed of muscles that facilitate various functions, including propulsion in aquatic locomotion, balance, communication, and protection.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | The tail is the elongated section at the rear end of a bilaterian animal's body. |
| Use cases | Animals use their tails for communication, signalling, counterbalance, swimming, and insulation. |
| Number of tail vertebrae | The number of tail vertebrae varies across species, ranging from 2 to 49 in mammals. |
| Tail composition | Tails contain muscles, nerves, and tendons. |
| Muscle types | Ventral and dorsal tail muscles are involved in bending movements. |
| Muscle function | Tail muscles can cause the tail to bend, curve, or roll in different directions. |
| Muscle interaction | Tail muscles interact with the vertebral column and other muscle groups for stabilization and support. |
| Muscle genes | Genes related to tail muscles show upregulation and downregulation patterns during different stages of development and activity. |
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What You'll Learn
Muscles in the tail
The tail is the elongated section at the rear end of a bilaterian animal's body. While tails are primarily considered a feature of vertebrates, some invertebrates such as scorpions, snails, and slugs, have tail-like appendages. Animal tails are used in a variety of ways, including balance, communication, and propulsion in marine life.
The muscles in the tail are a continuation of the muscles of the back and pelvis. They are arranged in a circular manner around the coccygeal vertebrae and are surrounded by the caudal fascia. These muscles serve several functions and can be classified into three groups: the elevators, the depressors, and the lateral flexors.
In dogs, the tail muscles are important in stabilizing the vertebral column and supporting the action of the extensor muscles of the back, as well as those of the croup and buttocks. They also use their tails as rudders when swimming or pulling a sled. Additionally, the muscles around the anus contract and press on the anal glands, releasing a unique scent that is used for communication.
In cats, the tail muscles consist of six muscles on both sides: M. sacrocaudalis dorsalis medialis (SDM), M. sacrocaudalis dorsalis lateralis (SDL), M. coccygeus lateralis (CL), M. coccygeus medialis (CM), M. sacrocaudalis ventralis lateralis (SVL), and M. sacrocaudalis ventralis medialis (SVM). These muscles work together to bend, curve, and roll the tail in different directions.
In cetaceans, the downstroke of the fluke is powered by large muscles attaching to the ventral side of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, inserting via a tendon sheet into the caudal vertebrae and chevron bones. These muscles are commonly called hypaxialis lumborum.
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Functions of tail muscles
The tail muscles are a continuation of the muscles of the back and pelvis. They are arranged in a circular manner around the coccygeal vertebrae and can be classified into three groups: elevators, depressors, and lateral flexors.
Tail muscles are important in stabilizing the vertebral column and supporting the action of the extensor muscles of the back, as well as those of the croup and buttocks. In dogs, the tail is also used for counterbalance when carrying out complicated movements such as leaping, walking along narrow structures, or climbing.
In cetaceans, the muscles attaching to the ventral side of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae and inserting via a tendon sheet into the caudal vertebrae and chevron bones power the downstroke of the fluke. These muscles are large and are commonly called hypaxialis lumborum. In sirenians, specialized tail muscles called sacrocaudalis ventralis lateralis and medialis produce depression of the tail.
The tail muscles in birds are used as a rudder, helping the bird steer and maneuver in flight, as well as helping the bird balance while perched. Some birds, such as woodpeckers and woodcreepers, have extra-stiff tail feathers that allow them to brace themselves firmly against tree trunks.
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Evolution of tails
Tails have been around for at least 500 million years, and they have evolved in a variety of ways to suit different species' needs. In general, tails are distinct, flexible appendages extending backward from the midline of the torso of bilaterian animals. While tails are primarily considered a feature of vertebrates, some invertebrates such as scorpions, snails, and slugs have tail-like appendages.
Tails have a range of functions, from providing thrust for aquatic locomotion in fish, cetaceans, and crocodilians to serving as a rudder for steering in birds and some dog breeds. Many mammals use their tails for balance, and some, like monkeys and opossums, have prehensile tails adapted for arboreal locomotion.
In the case of scorpions, stingrays, and thresher sharks, tails can be weapons, delivering venom or penetrating trauma to prey or threats. Meanwhile, snakes may use their tails as lures to attract prey, and some dinosaurs used their tails as defensive weapons.
Tails also play a significant role in communication and signaling. Canines, for instance, use their tails to convey mood and intention, while deer may use them to warn others of danger. Domestic dogs indicate emotions through the positioning and movement of their tails, and beavers slap the water with their tails to signal danger.
Over time, some species have evolved to lose their tails, including frogs and hominid primates. In these cases, the coccyx, or tailbone, remains as a vestigial structure. Humans, for example, no longer have tails, but the fused vertebrae at the bottom of the vertebral column are a reminder of our ancient primate ancestors who did.
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Tail muscles in dogs
The tail is an important part of a dog's anatomy and is an extension of the spine. The tail has a vital role in communicating a dog's mood and intention. For example, a dog that is feeling threatened or challenged will position its tail upright and rigid. A frightened dog will tuck its tail between its legs to avoid attracting attention to itself.
The tail also acts as a fan, spreading a dog's natural scent. A dominant dog that carries its tail high will release more scent than a dog that holds its tail lower.
The tail is also important for counterbalance when a dog is carrying out complicated movements, such as leaping, walking along narrow structures, or climbing. Some dogs also use their tails as rudders when swimming, and some dogs use their tails for insulation.
Tail muscles are important in stabilizing the vertebral column and supporting the action of the extensor muscles of the back, as well as those of the croup and buttocks. The muscles are attached to the tail vertebrae by tendons, with the most posterior tendons attaching to the last tail vertebra. Four to seven paired nerves serve the tail muscles. These muscles have many tendons that insert from the fifth or sixth caudal vertebra and then onto the next vertebra and so on to the end of the tail.
Some common tail injuries in dogs include happy tail, limber tail, and fractured tail. Happy tail injuries occur when dogs wag their tails constantly, hitting them against solid objects and causing injuries that expose delicate nerves and cause pain. Limber tail is a painful muscle condition caused by overexertion. Fractured tails can occur when a dog is hit by a car, falls, or has its tail trapped in a door.
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Tail muscles in cats
A cat's tail is made up of 18 to 23 caudal vertebrae, which are surrounded by six tail muscles on each side. These muscles are:
- M. sacrocaudalis dorsalis medialis (SDM)
- M. sacrocaudalis dorsalis lateralis (SDL)
- M. coccygeus lateralis (CL)
- M. coccygeus medialis (CM)
- M. sacrocaudalis ventralis lateralis (SVL)
- M. sacrocaudalis ventralis medialis (SVM)
These muscles allow cats to move their tails in different directions, such as bending it to the dorsal direction (SDM and SDL), curving it laterally (SDL, CL, CM, and SVL), bending it to the ventral direction (SVL and SVM), and rolling it (CL and CM). The contraction of SDL and SVL produces rapid and strong tail movements.
The tail is an important structure for cats, providing balance and stability during quick movements and locomotion. It acts as a counterbalance to the body, allowing cats to adjust their hips and maintain their balance, especially during rapid turns and shifts in the centre of mass. This is similar to the function of a rudder in boats. The tail also helps to stabilise the vertebral column and support the extensor muscles of the back, croup, and buttocks.
In addition to their functional roles, cat tail muscles also play a role in social signalling and communication. For example, cats can raise and quiver their tails while scent-marking, indicating their emotions and intentions to other cats.
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Frequently asked questions
The tail is the elongated section at the rear end of a bilaterian animal's body. It is a distinct, flexible appendage extending backward from the midline of the torso.
While a tail is made up of several muscles, it is not just a muscle. It consists of vertebrae, tendons, nerves, and muscles.
The tail has different functions for different animals. For example, the tail of a fish helps provide thrust for aquatic locomotion, while a dog uses its tail for communicating its mood and intent. Some animals like deer, beavers, and dogs also use their tails to warn others of possible danger.
