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Fish muscles are significantly different from those of land animals, with shorter and less tough muscle fibres. Fish muscles are also less worked compared to land animals because they are constantly buoyed by water, and thus do not need to fight gravity. Fish muscles are made up of two types of muscle: white and red. Red muscles depend on oxygen and are used for sustained swimming, while white muscles are anaerobic and used for burst swimming. Fish muscle growth is regulated by the GH/IGF axis, which is the most important endocrine system regulating skeletal growth. Exercise has been shown to stimulate muscle growth in fish, and has been proposed as a natural way to improve the growth and welfare of aquacultured fish. Fish is also a great source of protein and omega-3 fatty acids, which help prevent muscle loss and support muscle growth in humans.
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What You'll Learn
Fish muscle growth regulation
Fish muscle growth is regulated by a variety of factors, including genetics, hormones, nutrition, and exercise.
Genetics play a crucial role in fish muscle growth. Genes regulating muscle growth have been found to be present in multiple copies due to paralogue retention following whole-genome duplication events in teleost lineages. These genes influence muscle growth throughout the various life stages of a fish, from the embryonic stage to adulthood. Additionally, myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs) are important molecules that play a significant role in muscle development and growth.
Hormones also have a significant impact on fish muscle growth regulation. The growth hormone (GH)-insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system is a key promoter of growth in vertebrates, including fish. GH induces muscle growth by modulating the expression of genes belonging to the myostatin (MSTN), atrophy, GH, and IGF systems. IGFs stimulate myogenic cell proliferation, differentiation, and protein synthesis, contributing to muscle growth. The GH/IGF axis is considered the most important endocrine system regulating skeletal growth in fish.
Nutrition is another factor influencing fish muscle growth. For example, big grass carp exhibit higher expression of ALAS2 and myoglobin 1, which are related to oxygen transport and may promote muscle growth along with food intake. Additionally, the nutritional status of fish can modulate inherent growth hormone resistance in skeletal muscle, as seen in the fine flounder.
Exercise has been shown to stimulate muscle growth in fish. Sustained swimming exercise at optimal speeds enhances muscle growth and improves flesh quality. This is due to the high level of muscle plasticity in fish, allowing them to respond with hyperplasia, which increases the total number of muscle cells.
In conclusion, fish muscle growth regulation is a complex process influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, hormones, nutrition, and exercise. Understanding these regulatory mechanisms is crucial for optimizing aquaculture production and improving the growth, quality, and welfare of cultured fish.
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Fish muscle composition
Fish muscle contains 15%–25% of the total protein in fish and can be divided into myofibrillar (50%–60%), sarcoplasmic (30%), and stromal (10%–20%) proteins. Fish muscle protein hydrolysates and their amino acids are desirable functional ingredients due to their natural availability, low-cost extraction methods, and ability to exert beneficial effects on human health.
Fish muscle protein contains a well-balanced amino acid composition, including Lys (8.8%), Trp (1.0%), His (2.0%), Phe (3.9%), Leu (8.4%), Ile (6.0%), Thr (4.6%), Met-Cys (4.0%), and Val (6.0%). These proteins are easily digestible and rich in more essential amino acids than most terrestrial meat proteins. The consumption of fish muscle protein is associated with health benefits, particularly anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory activities, as well as antimicrobial effects.
The skeletal muscle in fish is composed of two functionally and anatomically separated types of muscle: white and red muscle. White muscle represents the bulk of the skeletal muscle (approximately 95% of the total muscle mass) and is composed of anaerobic, glycolytic fibers, which support burst swimming. Red muscle, on the other hand, is composed of aerobic, oxidative fibers that provide endurance for sustained swimming.
The growth and development of fish muscle are regulated by various factors, including hormones such as growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factors (IGFs). Genes for cytoskeletal and myofibrillar components, as well as myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs), also play a significant role in muscle development and growth. Exercise has been shown to stimulate hypertrophy of muscle fibers, leading to increased muscle growth and improved flesh quality in fish.
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Fish muscle and human health
Fish muscle, which makes up 15%–25% of the total protein in fish, is made up of myofibrillar (50%–60%), sarcoplasmic (30%), and stromal (10%–20%) proteins. Fish muscle proteins contain essential amino acids, such as lysine, tryptophan, histidine, and leucine. Fish muscle is a desirable protein source due to its high nutritional value, ease of absorption, and beneficial effects on human health.
Fish muscle protein hydrolysates are in high demand as functional foods and have potential added value in pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. The hydrolysates contain physiologically active amino acids and various essential nutrients, which can improve human health. The amino acids in fish muscle hydrolysates have been shown to exhibit antioxidant properties and enhance antioxidant power by stabilising reactive oxygen species.
Fish is a great source of lean protein, which is essential for muscle growth and preservation. It is particularly beneficial for older adults, as it helps prevent the age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass and function, known as sarcopenia. The addition of fish to the diet can increase protein intake, enhance protein synthesis, and improve muscle mass and function. Fish is also a good source of healthy omega-3 fatty acids, which are less likely to be stored as body fat compared to other sources of fat.
Furthermore, fish fat helps funnel carbohydrates into muscles, contributing to muscle growth and compromising the body's ability to create body fat from carbohydrates. Fish is also a source of selenium and iodine, minerals that support metabolic rate and thyroid function, which impact calorie burning and metabolism.
Exercise has been shown to enhance muscle growth in fish, with sustained swimming at optimal speeds leading to improved muscle growth and flesh quality. This knowledge can be applied to improve the growth and welfare of farmed fish. Overall, fish muscle and its derivatives have significant benefits for human health, particularly in terms of muscle growth, preservation, and overall health.
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Fish muscle fibres
The growth of fish muscle fibres is influenced by various factors, including genetics, environment, and nutritional intake. Fish exhibit continuous growth throughout their lives, and muscle development involves the formation of new muscle fibres and the increase in size of existing fibres. This process is regulated by hormones, such as the growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), which play a crucial role in muscle development and overall skeletal growth. Additionally, exercise has been shown to stimulate muscle fibre hypertrophy, leading to an increase in muscle fibre size and contributing to improved flesh quality.
The myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs) are another group of molecules that are important for muscle development and regeneration. During periods of compensatory growth, such as after fasting or reproductive stages, MRFs play a significant role. Other factors, such as myocyte enhancer factors (MEFs) and myostatin, are also involved in muscle development and regeneration. The target of rapamycin (TOR) complex has been identified as an important integrator of nutritional and endocrine signals, influencing fish growth.
The growth of fish muscle fibres has implications for both aquaculture and the fitness of wild fish populations. By understanding the regulatory mechanisms and responses to exercise, aquaculture practices can be optimised to enhance muscle growth and flesh quality. Additionally, knowledge of swimming physiology and muscle fibre utilisation during exercise can provide insights into improving the health and survival of wild fish populations, particularly in the context of global environmental changes and fishing pressures.
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Fish muscle and oxygen
Fish muscles, like those of other animals, require oxygen to function. Fish muscle is composed of two types of muscle: white muscle and red muscle. White muscle makes up the majority of a fish's muscle mass (approximately 95%) and is composed of anaerobic, glycolytic fibres, which support burst swimming. Red muscle, on the other hand, is used for sustained swimming.
Oxygen is required for aerobic metabolism, in which carbohydrates and lipids are oxidised to produce energy. In fish, oxygen is supplied to the muscles by myoglobin, which is found in the muscle tissue. Myoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin, allowing it to effectively store and transport oxygen to the muscles.
During exercise, the demand for oxygen in the muscles increases. Sustained swimming exercise at optimal speeds has been shown to enhance muscle growth and improve flesh quality in fish. This is due to the stimulation of muscle fibre hypertrophy, resulting in a higher proportion of large muscle fibres. Additionally, exercise can induce changes in muscle composition, leading to higher flesh quality and improved survival through increased robustness and fitness.
In some cases, fish may experience hypoxia, or low oxygen levels. In response to hypoxia, fish have adapted various mechanisms to survive. For example, the crucian carp has evolved to convert lactate to ethanol in the muscle and excrete it through its gills, preventing the accumulation of lactate and allowing it to survive in anoxic waters. Additionally, changes in gene expression have been observed in fish exposed to hypoxia, including genes involved in oxygen transport, ATP production, and protein synthesis.
Overall, oxygen plays a crucial role in fish muscle function and metabolism. Understanding the interaction between oxygen and fish muscles is essential for optimising aquaculture production and improving the growth, flesh quality, and survival of fish.
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Frequently asked questions
No, eating fish will not kill you. Fish is a great source of protein and healthy fats like omega-3 fatty acids, which are beneficial for muscle growth and maintenance.
Fish do not necessarily need to eat other fish to survive. They can obtain the nutrients they need from a variety of sources, including plants, smaller fish, and invertebrates.
No, exercise is beneficial for fish. It improves their muscle growth, flesh quality, and overall health and survival.
No, but their muscles may weaken and atrophy over time. Fish that are constantly on the move, like tuna, have more developed and active muscles compared to sedentary fish.
